Last time I gave a talk of this nature, at the Queen Edith Festival last March, I began by admitting I was something of an imposter and that my real expertise lay elsewhere – mainly in rather obscure branches of engineering, but in historical terms, in 19th century Black Country history – neither of which are terribly relevant to what I am about to say tonight. So once again, ladies and gentlemen, I fear you have an imposter in your midst.

Be that as it may, as you will be quite aware, we are at the beginning a quite intensive run of festivals of different sorts – in ecclesiastical terms, the feasts of All Saints and All Souls, nominally on the 1st and 2nd of November, tomorrow and Saturday, but which we will be celebrating on Sunday and Monday. Then we have the more secular celebrations of Halloween tonight, Bonfire night on Tuesday November 5th, but which will mainly be celebrated in different places over the coming weekend and Remembrance Day on Monday November 11th, but again with the main ceremonies held next Sunday. In this talk – I hesitate to call it a lecture since that suggests expertise – I want to trace how all these festivals came about, and how they interact with each other, at least as far as Britain and (to an extent) Ireland are concerned. In doing the research for this talk, I have been led down some fascinating alleyways of knowledge and have really rather enjoyed myself. Hopefully what I have to say may be of interest, and perhaps also to a limited extent, enjoyable.

As a working title for the season I am thinking about, I will refer to it as the All Saints season that extends from the end of October through to the middle of November. The title of the talk is of course taken from the book of Ecclesiastes that, for those of a certain age, they will know this passage from the version by the soft rock band the Byrds in the 1960s.

To everything there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven: A time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted……. A time to weep, and a time to laugh; a time to mourn, and a time to dance…….

I chose the title, because the season is indeed one of contrasts, of joy and sadness, of light and darkness.

Before going any further though, it is worth pointing out that this isn’t the first time there has been a special series of events here in the All Saints season. On November 10th 1858, the church was re-opened after its restoration (it should have been on All Saints Day, but the work dragged on somewhat). The events in that case consisted of a series of sermons spread over three or four days. The church was filled on at least some of these occasions – I doubt sermons would be that attractive today! There were also similarities in financial terms. – there was a deficit of £300 on the total project cost of £4000 and the collections were devoted to that. Not unlike the current lighting appeal!

But onto the talk. In thinking about the material, it is clear that in the development of this season there are a number of what one might call strands, as in a rope, that twist around each other. So, it seems to me that a way of presenting the material is to think of each strand separately and then think about how they interact with each other. Up to the time of the Reformation in the 1500s, it seems to me that there are two major strands, and I will call them the seasonal strand and the sacral strand. Each of these strands are composed of different threads, although that is perhaps pushing the metaphor a bit far. After discussing the nature of these strands, I will then go on to argue that the Reformation caused major disruption. But after the Reformation, by the late 1500s, these strands have reformed, although composed of perhaps rather different threads, and a third one added, that I will refer to as the secular strand. This gives a pleasing three-way alliteration such as is beloved of preachers, of which of course I am one. And, whilst I will basically try to keep this as a historical talk, it will inevitably have a Christian perspective, with very much of an Anglican bias.

So, we begin by thinking about the pre-Reformation era, and firstly with the seasonal strand. For all agricultural and pastoral societies, the development of a calendar of some sort is a necessity to know when crops should be planted and harvested, when animal migrations will occur and so on. Now, there are two basic types of calendars that are found to this day – the solar and the lunar. Both have had an effect on how this season of All Saints has developed. Of most importance to this particular season is the solar calendar – it comes at a fixed time of year as Autumn closes and the rigours of winter begin. The influence of the lunar calendar is less obvious but comes from the fact that the central religious events that are commemorated in the Christian tradition – the death and resurrection of Jesus – are defined by the Jewish lunar calendar, and these feasts move year on year through the solar calendar. We will see that this has influenced, at times, the dates of All Saints Day in particular. Getting the relationship between the lunar calendar and the solar calendar correct was of huge importance to early Christians – obviously so that the date of Easter would be correct. This led to a form of calendric mysticism – seeing in the overlapping lunar and solar cycles something about the nature of time and the nature of God.

Now in the British Isles there have been two basic solar calendars. The first is built around the quarter days, the spring equinox; the summer solstice; the autumn equinox, and the winter solstice. From an early period, perhaps from the early Anglo-Saxon era. these quarter days have been sacralised and aligned, roughly, with Christian feasts as Lady Day (the feast of the Annunciation); the birth of John the Baptist and the feast days of St Peter and St Paul in the middle of summer, the feast of St Michael and All Angels or Michaelmas, and, of course, Christmas Day. They correspond with the approximate middle of our four seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter. In the Gaelic and Brittonic speaking areas of the British Isles – Ireland, Scotland and Wales the seasons were marked by festivals that (approximately) aligned with the mid-quarter days – Imbolc the start of February, Bealtaine at the start of May, Lughnasadh at the start of August and Samhain at the start of November. These correspond to the beginnings and endings of the four seasons. Again, they became, to a degree, sacralised after the conversion to Christianity in late antiquity- Imbolc became Candlemas; Lughnasadh became Lammas (loaf mass) Samhain becomes

All Hallows or All Saints. It is the latter of course that is of interest to us at the moment. Sacralisation never really worked for Bealtaine, and all it managed was to become the feast of St Philip and St James, two apostles about whom little or nothing is known. Historically, the records, such as they are, suggest that before the Reformation, Samhain was a time when there was widespread celebrations and feasts in Ireland, Wales and Scotland, as families and tribes gathered together – a community time. The Venerable Bede, in the seventh century refers to the month of November as Blod-monath in pagan Anglo-Saxon times – Blood month, where animals are slaughtered before the winter, and their meat salted, and this may well have also been an aspect of Samhain for the 1000 years that followed the conversion. The number of folk tales of witches, fairies, goblins and so on that have Samhain as a setting, suggest that it was regarded as an “uncanny” time, when the spirits were abroad. There is however no evidence at of religious rites, sacrifices to gods and so on. This is hardly surprising in my view – all of the British Isles was thoroughly Christianised by the six and seventh centuries, and although we read tales of the early evangelists contending with demons these tend to run out near the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period in the century after the conversion. One of the last such group of tales seems to belong to the life of St Guthlac of Crowland not far from here, in the fens around Peterborough in the early 700s, where he battled against demons and demi-gods. Recently on an early morning train trip seeing the mists drifting over the fens around Whittlesea, it still seemed like an ideal place for demons to inhabit! But after Guthlac’s time, there is no record of worship of anything other than the Christian God and the formal warnings by Bishops against pagan practices cease about the same time too. There is however evidence, albeit from a rather late period, that the festival was also marked by the lighting of fires – perhaps as a protection against the surrounding spirit world, or perhaps for the purposes of divination as is known to be the case at Bealtaine for example.

In England and much of Europe, however, the situation was somewhat different and the community and feasting aspects of the season were centred on Martinmas on November 11th, which was seen as the end of the harvest and the start of winter. St Martin was a 4th century Roman soldier who couldn’t reconcile his Christianity with a military life and became a hermit and then a bishop at Tours in France. He was much loved by his congregation and was very active in the destruction of pagan temples and sacred groves.

Moving on now to the second strand – the Sacral. From the depths of time, it is possible to discern in the archaeological and written records, a deep human concern with ancestors, with careful preparation of bodies for burial, storage of ancestor’s bones and so on through cultures as diverse as the ancient Egyptians and the neolithic, bronze and iron age inhabitants of these islands. At the start of the Christian era in the Mediterranean, it was commonplace for families to meet at the tombs of ancestors to eat, and in some sense share with the dead, a celebratory meal. There is some evidence that at the feast of Samhain in particular in Ireland and to a lesser extent in Scotland and Wales, the spirits of the ancestors were perceived to be abroad and needed to be appeased by offerings of food and drink.

One striking exception to these practices concerned with the ancestors seems to be in the Jewish tradition, where there was no clear concept of the afterlife, and certainly noindication that the ancestors were in any way concerned with the living. Indeed, any attempts to contact ancestors or to appease them was strictly forbidden under the Torah. At the start of the common era there were two schools of thought within Judaism. The first envisaged a rather nebulous and shadowy afterlife for the dead in Sheol. Again, from the book of Ecclesiastes

For the living know that they will die, but the dead know nothing; they have no further reward, and even their name is forgotten

Ecclesiastes was a cheery soul. The other school held to a developing concept of a heavenly resurrection from the dead. These were the Sadducees and Pharisees of the biblical accounts.

The events of the Jewish month of Nisan in the year 33 were to change all that – the passion and resurrection of Jesus. Whatever one makes of these events, one thing about them is certain – that the relationship between the dead and the living was radically changed for the followers of Christ. The hope of an eternal existence and some sort of physical resurrection was, and is, the core of the Christian story, with the belief that life continues beyond the grave. This radical change in belief was to have several implications both for Jewish and non-Jewish Christians that were worked out over the centuries. The first was the concept that for the heroes of the faith – the martyrs, those who lived particularly holy lives – their death meant a direct entry to the presence of God. From this there arose, quite early in the Christian era, the concept of the saints in heaven being in close relationship with those on earth. From the letter to the Hebrews, written in the second half of the first century

Therefore, since we are surrounded by such a great cloud of witnesses, let us throw off everything that hinders and the sin that so easily entangles.

The boundary between the church triumphant in heaven and the church militant on earth was perceived as very thin and porous. And the saints took the place of ancestors in the lives and rituals of many. In the early centuries meals were eaten around the tomb of these “saints”, as they had been around the tombs of ancestors, which in turn lead to the development of churches around these tombs, where the Christian meal of the Eucharist was celebrated, often within cemeteries. The Basilica of St Peter in Rome is the most magnificent outworking of this. In essence the saints became part of the Christian family in a specific location. And it is clear from the records that many Christians felt a very close and real relationship with their local saint, or with the saint they were named after. This is not something that, with our twentieth century materialistic mind set, we can easily understand, but it was of huge importance to those in the Middle Ages. From this the medieval cult of the saints developed, with churches of increasing magnificence being built around the tombs of saints, or parts of saints – their relics – with pilgrimages to particularly holy sites. And saints were appropriated by different groups in society as their patrons. For example, consider the saints commemorated on May Day, Bealtaine, the two little know apostles – Philip became the patron saint of bakers and cooks and James the patron saint of hatters. Generally, the major celebration of any particular saint or martyr was on the anniversary of their death and if this was not known, then some arbitrary day related to Easter or Pentecost was often chosen. But there were of course many minor saints, martyrs and holy men and women who were not celebrated universally and whose death date was generally not known, and it was this that led to the idea of celebrating this crowd of witnesses on a particular day.

From the fourth century onwards, this celebration of All Hallows seems to have been held on days at fixed times around Easter and Pentecost and this remains the case for some of the eastern churches – on the lunar calendar of course. However, in Northern Europe churches began to celebrate this feast on November 1st (on the solar calendar) and this practice was extended to the whole catholic church by Pope Gregory IV in the ninth century. It is not clear why this date was chosen, but clearly one particular reason might have been that this coincided with the date of Samhain, and similar feasts elsewhere in Europe where the ancestral spirits were felt to be active. But this is really speculation. The feast clearly proved popular however and the church dedication to All Saints or All Hallows is the third most popular in England.

There were of course many other Christians than the saints and martyrs that were so honoured and exalted. And the line of thought developed over the centuries that these did not go straight into the presence of God, but rather to “purgatory” a place of purging and preparation the nature of which could be quite benign, a sort of final washing away of the sins of this world, or could be more severe – with the obligatory taste of hellfire and the length of stay (one might say sentence) was dependent upon the nature of one’s life on earth. This period could be shortened by the prayers of the faithful still living, or, much more effectively, by the prayers of the saints who are already in the presence of God. And this led to the practice of invoking the saints to pray for dead loved ones evolved. This was a very radical change in concept from the pre-Christian era in all parts of Europe, and it took a strong hold within the British churches. By the time of the Reformation, the concepts of praying for those who have died, both directly and through ones favoured saint or saints had become the norm. The institution of a day for a general payer for the departed, on November 2, is due to Odilo, abbot of Cluny who died 1048, chosen to follow All Saints’ Day. Having celebrated the feast of all the members of the church who are believed to be in heaven, the church on earth turns, on the next day, to commemorate those souls believed to be still in purgatory. Again, the choice of this date was consistent with the date of Samhain and other similar festivals.

The idea of purgatory and the need for prayers for the dead had many consequences. One of these was the trend toward establishing chantries – to pay priest to say masses and to pray for the souls of specific departed and for their release from purgatory. And in many medieval churches there would have been altars dedicated to such purposes. Here at All Saints, it is likely that the guild altars dedicated to the Holy Trinity, All Saints and St Mary (the modern Trinity chapel, chancel and Lady chapel) would also have been used for this purpose, together with the other guild chapels located where the old grammar school now stands, dedicated to St Michael and St Mary again. The existence of communion shelves or piscinas in the north and south transepts suggests there was an altar on their east walls, that again were likely to be used as chantries.

It is possible too that here at All Saints there were relics – 19th century reports describe a cupboard in the east wall for that purpose – and it is still marked by a shelf in the late 19th century stone work. Whist that may have been the case, I am far from convinced. But of course there is a more proven place of relics locally, at Brooke, and the Brooke Reliquary can be seen in the County Museum.

Another consequence of the concept of purgatory that is perhaps less attractive was the selling of indulgences – by suitably donating to the church, a reduction of the time your loved ones spent in purgatory could be reduced. Apparently. Apparently. Johan Tetzel is said to have coined the phrase

As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory doth spring.

So just prior to the Reformation in the 1500s, ordinary Christians would have experienced the liturgical expressions of All Saints Day – the ceremonial of the high mass and processions to shrines, and the call to prayer for the dead on All Souls Day. The primary liturgical celebration of the latter was the ringing of bells – for the encouragement of the dead, to show that they have not been forgotten. In parts of the British Isles these celebrations would have been accompanied by family and community celebrations, perhaps with the lighting of fires, and generally there was an enhanced awareness of the reality of the spirit world all around them.

The two strands of the seasonal and the sacral had become thoroughly entwined. But the Reformation was to change all that. This is not the place to give the history of the Reformation, or to chart its different courses across the countries of Europe. It is usually said to have begun in 1517 when Martin Luther famously nailed his 95 theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg, with one of his major targets being the sale of indulgences. Uniquely in England it led to the considerable enrichment of the monarchy, in this case Henry VIII, through the dissolution and sale of the monasteries, overseen by Thomas Cromwell, and to a reformed protestant national church, with a quite conservative liturgical provision, as well as a wide range of fissiparous non-conformist churches.

Now let’s move on to see how the season developed after the Reformation. As I said both the seasonal and the sacral strands were to re-form, perhaps with rather different threads, and we will see a third was added – the secular. Again, we consider each in turn.

Firstly, the Martinmas feasting tradition in England died out and was not revived, and the community and family celebrations moved to the feasts of All Saints and All Souls at start of the month, effectively merging with the Samhain celebrations in the rest of the islands. Indeed, Martinmas was known as the old Halloween, particularly after the loss of 11 days in the calendar change of 1752. In the regions where Catholicism remained strong, particularly in Ireland the Highlands, the seasonal strand at Samhain continued much as before. As the sources become more widespread, we can see that, in all parts of these islands, there were collections for provisions for the feasts associated with this strand, often with “collecting” songs – for example the soul cake tradition

A soul! A soul! A soul-cake!
Please good Missis, a soul-cake!
An apple, a pear, a plum or a cherry,
Or any good thing to make us all merry.
One for Peter, two for Paul
Three for Him who made us all.

Similar collecting songs were widespread across the country, including the more protestant areas. The collections were often accompanied by lanterns made from candles within hollowed out mangle wurzels or turnips. It remained an “uncanny” time and there are records of bonfires for either protection or divination continuing across England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland – the evidence usually coming from reports of clergy attempting to suppress them.

Even where they were successful in this, the tradition changed, either to small hand-held fires – such as those in Lancashire consisting of a bunch of straw at the end of a fork, or small bonfires known as tindles around Derby, which seems to have an association with praying for the dead in purgatory. In addition, a tradition of disguising begins to appear in the record (seemingly at first to protect those disguised from witches and fairies), and this, inevitably, evolved into pranks and games. This began in Ireland, but quickly spread with the emigration of the Irish to England and Scotland, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries. It also passed to the United States and from there back to England through immigrants and visitors and we all know where that was to lead to.

But again, it needs to be stressed that there is no evidence at all that pagan deities were worshipped at the time. That such worship continued underground throughout the Christian era is largely an invention of the Victorian folklorists and in particular Sir James Frazer of Trinity College Cambridge and Margaret Murray of University College and President of the Folklore Society. This concept has been thoroughly debunked in recent years by historians who, quite reasonably, went back to the source material and found nothing there. But nonetheless this concept has entered the popular imagination, and many would still believe that pagan worship continued underground beneath a thin veneer of Christianity, despite the complete lack of any evidence for this.

That being said, is perhaps worth digressing to consider the concept of fairies, spirits and witches a little at this point. Was there any reality behind the fears and worries apparent in many of the stories of the seasonal thread that derived from Samhain? As someone who believes in a creator God, I don’t find it difficult to believe that other, what one might call, spiritual, entities exist, in our world. But if they did, or indeed, do exist, recent scholarship has shown that they are very much dressed in the clothes of beings that ultimately find their origin in classical Greek and Roman myths and folk tales, mediated through the medieval church. They have been moulded, if not created, by men and women. As such, if they are human creations even in a secondary sense, they will, like humans, be a complex mix of the good and the bad. With regard to the witches so feared at Samhain, these probably derived from the ancient “wise woman” or “cunning folk” traditions, or from simple fear of older ladies who refused to be bound by social conventions. There are maybe a few such in Oakham still.

Moving on now to the Sacral strand. This strand was inevitably most affected by the Reformation. As in other countries, the unscriptural doctrines of purgatory, the selling of indulgences and praying to the saints for the departed were obvious targets for the reformers. Article 22 of the 39 articles reads

The Romish Doctrine concerning Purgatory, Pardons, Worshipping, and Adoration, as well of Images as of Reliques, and also invocation of Saints, is a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God.

In the prayer book of 1549 and all those that followed, All Saints Day was retained as a festival, but as a simple commemoration of the lives of past saints, rather than an affirmation of the unity of church triumphant and militant. Saints were at best seen as examples and role models. For example, the hymn “How bright these glorious spirits shine!”, by the 17th century hymn writer Isaac Watts, contains these verses.

Lo! these are they from sufferings great
who came to realms of light,
and in the blood of Christ have washed
those robes that shine so bright.

Now with triumphal palms they stand
before the throne on high,
and serve the God they love amidst
the glories of the sky.

Here the Saints are pictured, and their heavenly state described, but there is no indication that there is any possibility of human interaction as in the old pre-Reformation days. All Souls Day was not mentioned in the Prayer Book at all, and the concept of praying to the saints and for the departed was, as far as it was possible, abolished – although the personal prayers of individuals couldn’t of course be so proscribed – for example the small fires mentioned above were regarded by some as surrogates for prayer for their loved ones. Also of course the graves of the dead were still visible, and still received the attention of their families. And there could be no prohibition on whatever private prayers might have been offered there.

Ringing bells for the dead was intermittently banned and restored during the reigns of Edward VI, Mary and Elizabeth after the reformation, but continued sporadically for many years in a number of places, despite clergy opposition. Nonetheless until the Tractarian Revival of the nineteenth century revived the practice, praying for the departed was absent from the church’s liturgy. Even now, for many parts of the Church of England and the non-conformist churches, such prayer is definitely not encouraged, in public at least, and there is often a hesitancy about the practice. The invocation of the prayers of the saints for the departed has really departed from mainstream Anglican and non-conformist traditions.

I mentioned earlier that after the Reformation a third strand appeared – which I called the secular. The secular strand first arose in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, where it became the practice to ring church bells, usually in the evening, to celebrate her accession date conveniently timed for the season on November 17th. This began after the catholic rebellion of 1569 as a mark of loyalty. Whilst theoretically not connected at all with the earlier practice of ringing for the dead, many would no doubt have made the connection. This practice continued after her death, particularly in London, as a form of protest – the bells were rung for her on November 17th and very ostensibly not rung for the birthdays of Charles I and his (catholic) wife Henrietta Maria on November 19th and 16th respectively. Who would have thought that bell ringers would be radical protesters? The same situation arose after the Restoration with the bells ringing on November 17th in contrast with the non-celebration of Charles II’s catholic wife Catherine of Broganza on November 15th. Maybe the older bells in Oakham’s ring of eight, which, at least before their recast in 1910, date from this period, were used for this seditious purpose. It would be nice to think so.

The next thread in the secular strand is of course the events of November 5th, 1605 – Gunpowder, Treason and Plot and so on. It was clearly very thoughtfully timed for the All Saints season, and the celebratory bonfires (and papal effigies) that resulted were almost immediately popular and have remained so to this day. Again, they are not in a direct way a continuation of the bonfires of protection and divination in the pre-Reformation seasonal strand, but they certainly match the mood of celebration and provision of light that were characteristic of the old ways. Fireworks were used almost from the start, at least for the larger events, the techniques of making them having come from China a couple of hundred years before. This is perhaps the most international aspect of the season. Sporadic attempts were made to ban them – most notably by the catholic James II in the early 1680s, but these were mostly futile. Again, most suitably for the season, William of Orange, scourge of the Catholics, landed in England on November 5th, 1688. James II fled to France, and the Glorious Revolution began.

This essentially secular festival did, however, become entwined with the sacral strand, with a liturgy being produced by the Church of England and used through to the mid nineteenth century. This had specific responses, readings and prayers that were to be used on November 5th, which included this gem

ALMIGHTY God…we yield thee our unfeigned thanks and praise for the wonderful and mighty deliverance of our late gracious Sovereign King James, the Queen, the Prince, and all the Royal Branches, with the Nobility, Clergy, and Commons of England, then assembled in Parliament, by Popish treachery appointed as sheep to the slaughter, in a most barbarous, and savage manner, beyond the examples of former ages. From this unnatural conspiracy……thy providence, delivered us: therefore, unto thy Name be ascribed all honour and glory … through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

We don’t have collects like that anymore. And that one wouldn’t have done a great deal for ecumenical relations. The liturgy for the day was withdrawn in 1849.

And of course, in this secular strand, we have Remembrance Day on November 11th, commemorating in the first instance the end of the Great War in 1918. When this annual remembrance was first suggested, there was a move to create a Bank Holiday as a day of celebration. This was resisted by the then government on the grounds that there should be a solemn act of remembrance rather than the celebrations that would result from a Bank Holiday. Indeed, in the first instance, the only act of remembrance that was specified was the silence on November 11th on whatever day of the week it was, although specific liturgies were to develop. This decision seems to me to have been wise, and to a large extent responsible for the fact that Remembrance Sunday has retained its importance and is usually the final act of the All Saints season.

But over the last fifty or so years another aspect has been added to the season, that fits in with both the seasonal and the sacral strands – the rise of what has been called Modern Paganism for which the feast of Samhain is a significant time. Modern Paganism exists in many different forms, but one of its underlying concepts seems to be a desire to recover the “uncanniness” of the season, for which I have every sympathy. But with this quite often comes a pantheistic approach to creation – that God and creation are one and the same, which is certainly not consistent with the Christian idea of a transcendent God that is both within and separate from the created world. Some forms of paganism also see this as an occasion for worship of their Gods, primarily the duality of the Mother Goddess and the Horned God, which it has to be said doesn’t seem to have much historical justification, as it is clear that this hasn’t been an aspect of the festival for most of the last 1500 years. Indeed, the origin of some of the pagan deities worshipped today lies in literary movements of the nineteenth century – the literary recreation of Natura, nature personified, and the minor Greek god Pan. Nonetheless, this brings a completely new aspect to the season, one that has considerable spiritual power for its adherents.

And all of this of course brings us to the present, where we see our three strands to the season thoroughly entwined, with each of the current elements of the season reflecting to a greater or lesser degree all three of them.

Whilst the precise dates of the various festivals have slipped somewhat, often to the nearest available weekend date, we now go through them in their calendar order.

Modern Halloween, on October 31st is, in the main, a secular celebration, although it clearly has a seasonal aspect. Sometimes it seems, with its demand for sweets and other goodies, almost to be a license for robbery with menaces! It is common, particularly amongst church goers, to bemoan the commercialization and trivialisation of the day, although a church that in the past sold indulgences to fill its coffers is perhaps in no position to moan. I do object however to the use of pumpkins, American interlopers, as lanterns rather than turnips or mangle-wurzles. I think I might start a campaign for the reintroduction of turnip lanterns.

The importance of Halloween to Modern Paganism has taken on a sacral aspect for its adherents. Whilst one should be respectful of those involved, and perhaps welcome the emphasis on the uncanniness of the season, the church needs nonetheless to be very wary of worship focused on anything other than Jesus, the way, the truth and the life – be it the worship of material possessions or spiritual beings.

Also on October 31st, the church now, with a deep implicit irony, celebrates the life of Martin Luther, from whom the Reformation sprang. He would probably be horrified to be remembered on the eve of the commemoration he sought to abolish – the anniversary of the day he posted his 95 theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg. In many European countries the day is celebrated as Reformation Day or held on the Sunday before as Reformation Sunday – an echo of which can be found in the Anglican Bible Sunday with which it coincides.

With regard to All Saints itself on November 1st, a body of powerful, new liturgical material has become available in recent years and I sense that once again the concept of the proximity of the heavenly and the earthly, the church triumphant and the church militant, is being more consistently reflected in the liturgy, and it is now more than a mere commemoration of the saints of old. There is, I believe, a deep human need for ceremony and ritual – a need I believe the more formal Anglican worship on occasions such as All Saints Day can go some way to meeting.

Recently too there have been wider liturgical innovations. All Saints Day has become the first day of a liturgical season that extends to Advent in which the lectionary explores the former traditional Advent themes of death, judgement, heaven and hell – perhaps after the realization that to try to make Advent about anything other than the preparation for Christmas is a losing battle!

There is one more thing I would like to say about All Saints itself. Specifically, I think there is a potential for it to become part of a much fuller seasonal liturgy. The church since the Reformation has to a great extent ceded the seasonal calendar to others – to commercial interests, to new age mystics, and to modern paganism. I would suggest that there is an opportunity to recapture that ground and provide a coherent and dramatic seasonal liturgy built around the eight solar calendar points, that both celebrates the changing seasons, and the world God has given us, but also tells the Christian story. Or in more theological terms, to redeem the calendar and consecrate the seasons. We do it already to some degree of course, specifically with Christmas, Easter and Harvest, but I think an overall coherent liturgical structure would give a framework and a focus for the growing “outdoor church” movement and for concerns over climate change and environmental degradation, moving beyond the current “creation” season which has been tacked on the liturgy in September time. The festival of All Saints would be crucial in any such liturgical framework – in some ways the culmination of the seasons, the drawing together of the events of the previous year, the turning of the seasons and the apex of the Christian story. Something to consider perhaps.

All Souls Day too on November 2nd was reinstated into the Prayer Book in 1928 and found its proper place in the liturgy of the church. It continues to provide for many, both within and without the church, focus for their prayers and their thoughts for their loved ones, with the candles that are so often used being in a direct line of descent from the small fires that were ignited after the Reformation. This has come at a time when there have been major shifts in the nature of funerary practices. Firstly, the most common form for a funeral is now cremation, and with the scattering of ashes at the deceased’s favourite locations, often there is no “place” for mourners to return to. Lighting a candle in church for the departed can fill a gap here, be it on all Souls Day or at other times. And secondly funerals and funerary monuments have moved away from proclaiming the hope of the Christian of resurrection, towards the celebration of the departed’s place within the family and a somewhat incoherent belief that those departed and their family will meet again.

This was very clear from a study I recently carried out on the memorial inscriptions in the large nine-acre churchyard of the church where we worshipped in Lichfield, where there was a significant shift in the nature of the inscriptions. Up to around 1940 these were very much centred on the Christian hope of resurrection, but since then they have come to reflect the deceased role as mother, father, grandparent and in some cases uncle, auntie, great-grandparent, or of their role within society, with a vague hope that all will meet again. The deceased is spoken of in such glowing terms that sometimes one wonders sometimes looking at the grave inscriptions what has happened to the curmudgeonly and miserable old grandfathers and grandmothers – they do not ever seem to have existed. But perhaps this lost hope of eternity is something that the All Souls service can help to rebuild as well as continuing to meet the emotional needs of the bereaved and to help them to remember those they have lost

On November 5th Bonfire night continues to meet the universal need for a good knees-up as winter closes in and with its fun and fireworks surely reflects the old bonfires of the pre-Reformation period – doe example effigies of prime ministers and other politicians are regularly burnt in the major celebration at Lewes. No doubt the current prime minister will feature at some stage.

Recently a new liturgical feast has been added to the season – one week after All Saints Day – the Saints and Martyrs of England on November 8th. Some of these martyrs come from the relatively recent past – a reminder perhaps that, to quote T S Elliot “There will always be martyrs and saints”.

Remembrance Day, marked on November 11th or on Remembrance Sunday continues, and its observance is widespread. In the poppy we have a powerful symbol that has been loaded with all kinds of significance. For those in any sort of public position the wearing of poppies for perhaps up to two weeks before seems almost obligatory. If they don’t, it seems to me they face the modern-day equivalent of blasphemy charges by sections of the press. Whilst it is essentially a secular festival, it is celebrated in many places, included here, with sacral or quasi-sacral rites, as indeed will happen here on Remembrance Sunday.

A further recent change has been the growth of Festivals of Remembrance, concerts with an Act of Remembrance, such as those at the Royal Albert Hall on Saturday, which have a significant entertainment aspect. So, we again see perhaps the festival moving away from the church and the coming together of the secular and seasonal strands, in a way that is completely consistent with the history of the season.

But perhaps on Remembrance Day it is also no bad thing to remember that it is also the feast day of St Martin of Tours who walked away from his career as a soldier to follow the way of Jesus, the Prince of Peace.

But our country is changing, with an influx of new immigrant communities from around the world. And I suspect these will all have an effect on the season. The catholic European and Latin American communities may bring new life to the traditional sacral celebrations, whilst the Black churches of the African communities may bring an increased awareness of the uncanny. But what will be particularly interesting is how these communities and also the large South Asian communities will begin to relate to the remembrance aspects of the season – remembering the departed on All Souls and those killed in conflicts on Remembrance Day. I don’t know enough of these communities to be able to even speculate on these questions, but these aspects of the season are of general and universal relevance and could be a major aid in the urgent need we have in this country to develop greater community coherence.

So, a season then of light and dark, a time to mourn and a time to laugh. A season of different strands and threads from a range of sources, but now all thoroughly mixed up together. I end with some very well-known words by William Walsham How, that speak of what to me is the most important aspect of the season, the long held Christian conviction that what we see is not all that there is, that the barrier between the church triumphant and the church militant is very thin, that we are indeed surrounded by a great cloud of witnesses.

But lo there breaks a still more glorious day:
the saints triumphant rise in bright array;
the King of glory passes on His way.
Alleluia, Alleluia!

From earth’s wide bounds, from ocean’s farthest coast,
through gates of pearl streams in the countless host,
singing to Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.
Alleluia, Alleluia!

Introduction

In this series of three related posts, I present transcripts of the press reports concerning the re-opening of All Saints church in Oakham in November 1858. This is done primarily to make the source documents for that event available and easily readable, and there is no discussion of their contents. That will come later. The material is all found in the British Newspaper Archive and the archive OCR text forms the basis of the transcripts, although. As with any OCR text, this has needed considerable editing, which, as I am sure the reader will find, has been imperfectly done. The material presented in the three parts is as follows.

• Part 1 contains the notice of the re-opening the from the Leicester Journal of 5^th November 1858 and a report on the event itself from the Stamford Mercury of 12^th November 1858. The latter contains the text of the report by Gilbert Scott that describes the state of the church before the restoration and what, in his view, needed to be done.
• Part 2 contains a report of the opening from the Leicester Journal of 12^th November 1858. This covers some of the same ground as the Stamford Mercury report, and whilst not including Scott’s report, does give details of the opening event, including the sermon that was preached.
• Part 3 (this part) is from the Lincolnshire Chronicle of August 24^th 1860, and gives the text of a lecture that was given at Oakham Castle entitled “Gothic Architecture” by the Rev Canon James, one of the principal proponents of the Gothic in the region, where the changes that were made to the church are explained and justified.

Lincolnshire Chronicle 24th August 1860

LECTURE AT OAKHAM. ON ” GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE,” by the RE V. CANON JAMES.

Last Wednesday afternoon, the Rev. Thomas James., M.A.- hon. canon of Peterborough, vicar of Theddingworth, and one the secretaries of Architectural Court of the Archdeaconry of Northampton—a gentleman extensively known as an accomplished ecclesiologist and erudite and painstaking antiquary—delivered a lecture at the Old Castle Hall of Oakham, on ” Gothic Architecture,” with especial reference to the history and arrangements of the Church and Castle Hall in Oakham. The lecture was for the benefit of the Oakham Literary Institute —a young but progressing association, having for its object the advancement literature, art, and science, and the improvement the humbler classes of society. The weather, unfortunately, was of the most dreary and cheerless character, heavy searching rain descending during the whole of the day. Notwithstanding this very material draw back, a numerous and fashionable audience assembled in the Hall at the hour announced for the lecture at three o’clock. Geo. Finch, Esq., of Burley Hall, the owner of the Castle, presided on this occasion, and amongst the ladies and gentlemen present we noticed the following :—The Rev. W. S. Wood, the Rev. T. Byers, the Rev. J. E. Prescott, the Rev. J. M. Wingtield, the Rev. H. Jones, the Rev. C. Palmer, the Rev. H. J. Biggs, the Rev. R. T. King, tho Rev. Scudamore, Lord Campden, –  Barnard, Esq., B. Adam, Esq., R. Harvey, Esq., J. Morton, Esq., H. Samson, Esq., &c, &c. The Oakham brass band was in attendance, and intervals played selections of music.

The Chairman opened the proceedings by observing that they had met in that venerable fabric for the purpose of hearing a lecture from the Rev. Mr. James, on Archaeology, as more especially connected with the Church of Oakham and the Old Castle in which they were at that time assembled. The date of its erection, which they saw upon the wall, was, he believed, incorrect, the hall having, in all probability, been constructed about the time William Rufus. It was a remnant of time when the country, both as regarded laity and clergy, were intently interested in the Crusades to the Holy Land—at a time when the country groaned under the Norman tyranny, and the people were the victims of regal despotism and of feudal violence. that age, the custom was to wear long-pointed shoes, and as the people had a very peculiar art of interpreting Scripture, they connected the prevailing fashion with the text, that ” No man can add one cubit to his stature,” and during the reigns Kings Henry the Second and John, the populace were firm believers in the long-pointed shoes as having something to do with religion. (Laughter.) But, happily, these ages of darkness and superstition had long since passed away, and the country no longer trembled ‘neath regal tyranny or baronial oppression. (Hear, hear.) Civil and religious liberty now prevailed through the length and breadth our highly favoured land, and all that now remained visible of these dark ages were splendid specimens of architecture. He would only mention that four out of the possessors of the Castle in which they were assembled had been executed for high treason ; the first was the Earl of Kent, in the reign of King Edward the Third, the second, the Duke Buckingham, in the reign Richard the Third; of whose fate Shakespere had informed them when he w rote :

“The Duke of Buckingham, my lord. Then off with his head “

— a second Duke of Buckingham in the reign of Henry the Eighth; and the fourth, Lord Thomas Cromwell, beheaded in the year 1540. He could only say that he sincerely trusted that the present and future possessors might never meet with a similar fate. (Loud cheers.) He might go much further in referring to the history and associations of Oakham Castle, but he would not intrench upon the province so erudite and able lecturer as Mr. James, who was, he was quite sure, much better qualified interest them. He begged to introduce to the meeting Mr. James. (Loud applause.)

The Rev. T. James then entered upon a most elaborate, instructive, and interesting lecture on the character, progress, arrangement, and utility gothic architecture, divided as it were into two parts, the first being illustrated by references to the Castle of Oakham, and the second descriptions of the church which has been recently restored, and which is one the finest specimens of gothic architecture to be found among the churches of England. The Committee of the Oakham Literary Institute desire to publish the lecture in its entirety for the benefit of the society, and therefore, their request, we only present our readers with a brief outline of Mr. James’ paper. He commenced by observing at one of their architectural meetings, a gentleman had accosted him by the enquiry whether he was Mr. James the architect and of course he told him, as he now told them, that he was not Mr. James the architect or the architect either. He much regretted that in undertaking a subject of such magnitude his knowledge of it was so superficial ; and he might as well tell them at the outset that he should in the course of his lecture draw largely upon the researches which the eminent knowledge of his friends (Mr. Poole and Mr. Hartshorn) had enabled them to make ; and he did this with the more confidence because he should not think for one moment of placing himself on a level with those gentlemen. As its name implied, architecture was the mistress art. With the gentleman who addressed him as an architect, many believed that the name architecture was derived from its connection with arches; but this was not so, although it might be said to begin with the arch. In fact, there could be architecture without the span of the arch stretching from pillar to pillar. The lecturer referred to some diagrams illustrating the early and progressive styles architecture, commencing with the stones placed one” upon another as at Stonehenge, next the Saxon, then the Norman, and finally the Gothic. These styles he lucidly described and illustrated. He observed that the various styles of architecture, more or less, ran into one another. It was quite impossible for anyone to say —here the Norman ends, and here the Saxon begins. Our forefathers never paid attention to styles—they went on building, putting the very best materials they could find into the best possible forms, just the same as they used to write, without any regard to the rules of grammar. Mr. James then pointed out that the arches of the windows inside the Castle Hall were round, while outside they were pointed. Oakham Hall marked the transitional period in architecture. It was the site of a Royal Hall, for a hall at Oakham was mentioned when King Edward the Confessor made his survey. Referring to the remarks of the chairman, the lecturer gave some interesting details of the early possession of the Castle of Oakham. Of these he made special mention of Walcheline de Ferrars, a younger son the Earl of Derby, lo whom Henry II. granted the manor, and created Baron of Oakham. This same Walcheline de Ferrars was a bit of poacher and a bit of a roystjer, having displayed a fondness for hunting the Royal game, while many time he Old Hall in which they sat had been the scene of feasting and merriment. De Ferrars joined King Richard I. in his crusade to the Holy Land and was last heard of the romantic siege of Acre, where he died. Alluding to the fact that four possessors of the Castle of Oakham had been executed for treason, the lecturer said it was not at all improbable that more than these had been guilty of treasonable practices, although they were not perhaps detected

Treason doth never prosper. What’s the reason? When it doth prosper, Men don’t call it treason.

After describing the persons through whose hands the Castle of Oakham successively passed until it came into the possession of its present most worthy and respected owner, Mr. James said it had been supposed some that the Castle was a chapel to some great building, but that was a most erroneous impression, formed through a notion that the piers and arches were peculiar to ecclesiastical edifices. They were not so, the Gothic in olden times being the prevailing style for buildings domestic as well as ecclesiastic. Oakham Castle Hall regarded as the finest domestic room in England, and, in all probability, it was the finest part of the Castle. They must not suppose that the ancient Castle was fortified with keep, bastions, and towers, as in the neighbouring Castle of Rockingham. Oakham Castle never had any defensive works, except the outer wall. The entrance door in the hall, he observed, was not now in the proper place. It was mentioned in Wright’s History of Rutlandshire that the door was in the corner, but it had been removed to the centre of the building- At the end of the hall which he stood the King’s chamber, all probability, existed, and he had been told Mr. Heneage Finch that in dry summers—which, of course, this was not —traces of buildings were to be found on the west as well as the east side. Mr. Heneage Finch had also told him that remembered a tower on the east wall, and there probably existed the postern which connected the Castle with the town. Mr. H. Finch also remembered a round tower on the westside. The lecturer next went on to describe the purposes for the hall had been used in olden times and gave a graphic word picture of what he supposed it to be in the days of Walcheline de Ferrars. There, in all probability, a sort of rough justice was administered the Baron, and there also the reveling and feasting took place. They must imagine the hall cleared of its present furniture, and substitute stout oaken benches for seats, with boards placed upon plain for tables, the only deviation from the arrangement being an arras of tapestry at the west end, where the lord sat. The windows were unglazed; the fire was placed on a raised platform in the centre of the hall, the smoke escaping by the windows after the fashion prevalent in the cabins of the Irish. In the evening the custom was to put wooden shutters to the windows, which it would be observed be admirably shaped for the purpose, and this they did at an early hour, showing that in those days they were supporters of the early closing movement. (Laughter.) The hounds crouched by their masters’ side, and their hawks perched above their heads. Here they quaffed wines from Greece and Cyprus and feasted upon lamprey and herring pies. The ladies and gentlemen sat at tables alternately, and it was the height of refinement then to eat off the same plate. (Laughter.) The only knife used was the claspknife, which the gentleman most likely took unsheathed from his girdle, and napkins would be in considerable request considering that large proportion of the food had to taken with the fingers. He (the lecturer) observed that it was well known that finger napkins were commonly used as early as the 13th and century. The chief Personages in those days sat at the upper end the table, and the humbler ones at the lower end—the salt cellar—which by way ought to spelled with the s and not the c—dividing the upper and under crusts of society. (Laughter.) He had thus endeavoured to introduce a few somewhat interesting details with the dry dish which he had to place before them; and determined to do so as soon as he knew he was to speak in hall, which was to them all so rich in association. (Applause)

The lecturer then proceeded to the more direct portion of his subject, pointing out on the diagrams the three styles of c architecture, viz., Early English, 13th century”; Decorated. 14^th century; Perpendicular, 15^th century. The first or early English arch they would observe was round, from one centre, the second or decorated arch, sprung from two centres; and the third arch he believed came from four centres- These styles were all to be found in the church of Oakham- enumerated the different parts of the church in which the three styles of Gothic architecture were observable, specially, remarking upon the pillar-shafts in the chancel, which were the 14^th century, while the capitals and bases were Tudor work, at least 150 years later. The lecturer quoted some elaborate remarks of the Rev. A. Poole’s on this subject, as also an translation from the Latin, referring to the transfer of Simon de Langham (who was not very popular) from the see of Ely to Canterbury. About the middle the 16th century, strict attention to ecclesiastical architecture ceased, and modern commenced. People had their attention occupied in ways. Gothic architecture was essentially un-Romish in its character, and he believed there was only one church in Rom which affects this style. The great Papal Church of St. Peter’s at Rome is in the classic style of architecture, and not in the Gothic, to which it is totally opposed. If faith were judged by architecture, then it would be more proper to condemn St. Paul’s than Westminster Abbey, for the former was far more in the Romish style. (Hear, hear.) He then adverted to the arrangements of Oakham Church and congratulated the inhabitants on the good feeling they had manifested in the restoration of the church. They had now obtained a building most suitable for the proper and reverential worship of Almighty God. No square room could ever have been appropriate, or of half so much utility. They had a church of which they ought to be indeed proud, and any apology for a beautiful structure would very much like Bishop Watsons apology for the Bible. He contended that Gothic churches had tendency to produce devotional feeling in the hearts the worshippers. Alluding to the arrangements of Gothic churches, the lecturer said originally the porch of the church was intended for the unbaptised, the nave for the great body of the people, and the chancel for the clergy for the celebration of the Holy Communion; the upper part being the presbytery, and the lower part was apportioned to the choir. These churches were built in the form of the Greek cross, plans which he pointed out to the audience. minutely referred to the general arrangements and particular features in Gothic churches, ably associating his remark with Oakham church. He alluded to its condition before its restoration, and said in that respect its history was the history of nearly every church in the country. Pleasantly touching upon bygone days when it was said that old ladies sat in church with their umbrellas up, and the pulpit to the last in mourning for George III. Mr. James drew attention to two plans—one of the church before the restoration with its high boxed-up pews, and the other since its improvement, remarking that they had, indeed, much cause for thankfulness and congratulation at such a pleasing change. As they entered the church they would observe the font, emblematical of regeneration; at the east end the altar, devoted to the second and higher sacrament, not shutout from the laity. Reverently guarded the pulpit on the north or gospel side (called from the Gospel being read on the north side of the altar) not hiding the Communion table; the Bible desk or lectern standing facing the people in order that all might hear the words addressed to them ; the Prayer desk more lowly as in accordance with the spirit of prayer, and not facing the as if the supplication was to them and not to God; the congregation seated themselves in the nave in open and uniform seats that there should be no distinction in God’s house; and so there might be no distraction all looked to the east, from where the Sun Righteousness arose. (Hear). And while on subject he might observe that the practice of placing the altar the east end of churches was copied from the Primitive and not from the Romish church. The altar in most Romish places of worship was placed at the west end, as at St. Peter’s Rome. Some slight divergence from the east was observable in the chancel of Oakham church, for which several reasons had been given, but they were not worthy of credence. The triple divisions of nave, chancel, and altar were still preserved but no rood screen now shut out the laity—it was open alike to all. (Applause.) It was held by some that the multiplied pillars in gothic churches were an obstruction to properly seeing what was going on, but he thought broken church induced feelings more reverential, more solemn, and more able for worship than would be produced by four square walls like a concert room. (Hear, hear.) In speaking of the costly decorations in Oakham church, the lecturer mentioned masks, &c, to be found there; and also, a very curious representation of a fox running away with a goose on its back followed the disconsolate goslings, and a man running after Reynard with a broom in his hand. All the carving in the church with one exception—which he had himself detected was of the 14^th and 15^th century. He mentioned that a cupboard in the eastern wall, behind the altar, which might have been used as a receptacle for relics, or for receiving the stoup of holy water which stood at the chancel door*. This receptacle was often confounded with the piscina, —which as they were doubtless aware of had a drain connected with it — used for washing out the chalice from the communion table. The tower of the church was what is called engaged tower from the fact of the east side being within the church. On the exterior there were figures in niches in the toner, which in days of fanatical excitement were rarely spared. The vestry was two storied, in all probability it was formerly used as the dwelling of an anchorite, that being a prevailing custom at one time. There was a similar instance of a two storied room attached to the church at Barnack, near Stamford. Of Gilbert Scott he must say that had carried out the work restoration in the most Conservative spirit, preserving thing interesting and valuable, clearing away only what was unseemly and unnecessary. The restoration committee did everything in their power to promote the work, and they the satisfaction of having their labours crowned with success.  He had the more pleasure in speaking upon this subject, ‘ much as he was asked to take part in the work, which, the exception of his own church, afforded him more pleasure than any labour he was ever engaged in. (Applause.). There were yet a few matters to be done to place the church in finished state which they all desired to see-; and he felt sure that the energy and liberality of private individuals would not leave them long to wait. (Hear, hear.) Among other matters, he should like to see two official pews for the church wardens, who held a high and responsible office in the church (Hear, hear.) Oakham Church, as a whole, was very effective and beautiful, and there could be no better proof than that of its architectural excellence. The various styles in the combined to make one effective whole, and he quite with Mr. Scott that it ought not to be spoiled by superfluity ornamentation. (Hear, hear.) After some further observations, Mr. James concluded by reiterating the pleasure he received from being permitted to take part in the work restoring that noble church, which he regarded with unmitigated satisfaction.

The Rev. W. S. Wood (headmaster of Oakham Grammar School) as president of the Literary Institute, proposed a vote of to the Rev. Mr. James for his able lecture, and the vote was accorded with acclamation.

The Chairman, in announcing that the meeting was closed, expressed the great interest and gratification he had received from the lecture which Mr. James had just delivered to and for which they all thanked him so much. He (the Chairman) was glad Mr. James had set him right as to the date of the hall, which would be 1100. In the other remarks made relative to the hall, it appeared that he was in the main correct. Mr. James, to whose valuable and zealous labours in the work of restoring the church he could bear testimony, had given them a most complete history of Gothic architecture. – many valuable interesting details of that old hall and their noble church. He was very glad that its arrangements more after the Primitive than the Romish Church, although if the Papal church erred in no graver matters than its architecture, it would be well (Loud applause.)

The band then played the National Anthem, and the company left the hall.

* There is a similar receptacle in the east wall, behind the altar, in the parish church of Navenby by Lincoln.

Introduction

In this series of three related posts, I present transcripts of the press reports concerning the re-opening of All Saints church in Oakham in November 1858. This is done primarily to make the source documents for that event available and easily readable, and there is no discussion of their contents. That will come later. The material is all found in the British Newspaper Archive and the archive OCR text forms the basis of the transcripts, although. As with any OCR text, this has needed considerable editing, which, as I am sure the reader will find, has been imperfectly done. The material presented in the three parts is as follows.

• Part 1 contains the notice of the re-opening the from the Leicester Journal of 5^th November 1858 and a report on the event itself from the Stamford Mercury of 12^th November 1858. The latter contains the text of the report by Gilbert Scott that describes the state of the church before the restoration and what, in his view, needed to be done.
• Part 2 contains a report of the opening from the Leicester Journal of 12^th November 1858. This covers some of the same ground as the Stamford Mercury report, and whilst not including Scott’s report, does give details of the opening event, including the sermon that was preached.
• Part 3 (this part) is from the Lincolnshire Chronicle of August 24^th 1860, and gives the text of a lecture that was given at Oakham Castle entitled “Gothic Architecture” by the Rev Canon James, one of the principal proponents of the Gothic in the region, where the changes that were made to the church are explained and justified.

Leicester Journal 12th November 1858

Amidst the numerous church restorations which have recently been made in this county and district, the one at Oakham is certainly one of the most complete and perfect every detail. The church had for some time past fallen into a sad state of decay, and the worthy vicar, the Rev. Heneage Finch, determined, with other friends, if possible, to restore the fabric throughout, besides giving more seat accommodation. The old fashioned, high-backed pews, and west end gallery having long proved inefficient for the requirements of the parish, it was determined once to remove them. After some delay, sufficient sum was raised by subscription to warrant the commencement of the work, Mr. G. Pinch having headed the list with the handsome sum of £1000, the Vicar and others also contributing largely.

The church itself is mostly in the Perpendicular style, having been built in the 15th century, and is considered to be the finest specimen of ecclesiastical architecture in the county. The roof had fallen into a fearful state of decay and has been thoroughly restored. The Chancel has had entirely a new roof, composed of English oak, very richly panelled in the Decorated style, and contains some very fine tracery. The groundwork of the altar consists of very fine traceried carved bosses, which has a fine appearance. The nave, aisle, and transept have also been entirely restored with English oak. The south chapel has an exceedingly beautiful ceiling in oak, enriched with moulded ribs and carved bosses intersections, with traceried panels. The whole of the roofs are covered with new lead, the old being entirely removed. The western entrance, which was formerly blocked up, only being used the ringers, is now made the principal entrance. The first stage of the tower has now a new ringing floor, and the bells, which are six in number, have been re-hung in new oak frames. Two of the bells have been re-cast by Mears, of London. A new clock is also in course of erection, by Dent, of London, which is to have two faces, one looking south and the other west, and is to strike the quarters. A new east window of five lights has been put into the chancel, glazed with diamond quarries of cathedral glass, with cast-iron saddle bars. The shafts of this window are of fine Derbyshire polished marble. The interior of the church has undergone a thorough reseating, open seats having (as before stated) been substituted for pews, whereby 300 additional free sittings have been gained for the poor. The seats are made of the finest wainscot oak, with moulded ends, having carved terminations. The low screen dividing the chancel from the nave, is also of oak, filled with open tracery, richly carved. The pulpit, which is also of oak, is supported by a bracketed pedestal, the panels being filled with rich tracery. The north and south screens, separating the aisles from the chancel, have very rich moulded tracery and embattled cornices. The stalls in the chancel, and reading desks are exceedingly rich in detail, having foliage, representing the holly, oak, vine, and hop, beautifully carved on the terminations. The altar-rail is also of oak, with lozenge-formed compartments, and the table itself is of massive oak, supported on six octagon shafts, richly moulded. The old South doors have also undergone a thorough restoration, according to their original features, and are of a very massive character. The West and North doors are of oak, framed in small compartments, covered with rustic bordering, with ornamental hinges, &c. The body of the church is laid with black and red Staffordshire quarries, and the chancel and sacrarium are paved with Minton’s encaustic tiles, from designs furnished by the Rev. Lord Alwyne Compton, and are exquisitely beautiful. The south side of the sacrarium is furnished with a credence table in Caen stone. The glazing is entirely new throughout the church, the windows being all filled in with cathedral glass of a light green tint, and of a small lozenge pattern. Ail the stonework has been thoroughly cleaned from whitewash, and brought to its original colour, as well as entirely restored. The old stoves have been done away with, and a new apparatus on the most approved principle of warming by water, has been erected by Messrs. Rosser, of Millbank-street, Westminster. The church is beautifully lighted with rich metal gas standards, of 20 jets each, the two chancel lights being extremely elegant in design and workmanship, every alternate burner forming a star. They were supplied by Messrs. Skidmore, of Coventry. The whole of the woodwork and carving has been done by Mr. Ruddell of Peterborough, in his usual style of excellence; and the masonry has been executed in a very superior style by Mr. Thomson, also Peterborough. Both these gentlemen were the contractors for St. George’s Church at Doncaster. The total cost has been between six and seven thousand pounds, the whole having been subscribed, with the exception of about £300. We had almost forgotten to mention that the old Norman font, which is evidently older than the present church, has been cleaned and restored, and refixed at the west entrance. The whole the work has been carried out under the direction that talented ecclesiastical architect, G. G. Scott, Esq., of Spring Gardens, London; and Mr. Geo. Clarke, clerk of the works of the Lichfield cathedra], has had the superintending of the works.

The re-opening of the church was fixed for Wednesday and Thursday last. Morning service commenced Wednesday, at 11 o’clock, when the church was filled a very large congregation, the admission up ten minutes to eleven being ticket only. At eleven o’clock a procession was formed from the new grammar-school to the church, in the following order:

Sexton
Choir boys
Choir
Committee
Churchwardens, Messrs. Davis and Ratcliffe
Clergy in gowns
Clergy in surplices – Rev. W. L. Wood, Rev. W. King, Hon. and Rev. A. G. Stuart, Rev. Thos. Yard, Rev. Heneage Pinch, and Rev. E. Meyrick Goulbourn.
The clergymen in the procession numbered about 50.

The choir of St. John’s church, Leicester, attended, and Herr Schneider, organist of St. John’s, presided at the harmonium, there being no organ at present.

Morning prayers were read by the Rev. W. Wingfield, assisted the Rev. R. Sorsbie, the Rev. W. J. Wood, the Rev. Heneage Finch, the Rev. J. R. Woodford, the Rev. A. 0. Stuart, and the Rev. T. Yard. The offertory was read by the Rev. J. R. Woodward.

Amongst those who were present we noticed the Hon. H. Noel and party, Hon. Colonel Lowther and party. Lord Wensleydale,  Mr. George and Lady Louisa Finch, Sir John and Lady Trollope, Sir R. Sheffield, Edwd. Cayley, Esq. (Stamford), W. A. Pochin, Esq., W. Rudkin, Esq., W. Sharrard, Esq., J. Painter, Esq., Mr. Buftress(Wymondham),. Messrs. Wellington (Oakham), Hawthorn (Uppingham), the Rev. H. Finch (vicar). Dr. Goulbourn, Hon. and Rev. A. G. Stuart, Rev. Thos. Yard, Hon. and Rev. Leland Noel, Rev. Thos. James, Rev. J. R. Woodford, Rev. W. S. Wood, Bev. R. King, Rev. C. A. Stevens, Rev. C. E. Pritchard, Rev. Nowell Twopenny, Rev. C. H. Atlay, Rev. H. Wingtield, Rev. R. Sorsbie, Rev. J. W. Skevingham. Rev. J. H. Milne, Rev. G. E. Gillett, Rev. H. J. Rev. G. A. Poole, Rev. C. E. Prescott, Rev. J. H. Noyes, Rev. Lovick Cooper, Rev. S. E. Gretton, Rev. Si, G. Bellairs, &c.

The sermon was preached by the Rev. Dr. Goulbourn. of Quebec Chapel, Loudon, from the 3rd chapter of Exodus, and the 5^th  verse “ Draw not nigh hither, put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground.”  The rev. gentleman said, in the passage he had just read was wrapt up the doctrine of sacred places. Now, what was a sacred place – in what sense could one place be more sacred than another No doubt the popular answer would be, that wherever Christ was present was sacred. Now such a meaning would have the strictest sanction of scripture. It was true that the Lord Jesus was present in every Christian congregation, but was it not also true, that God was present in every district of the universe? Go where you would, you could not escape from Him; He was there. If he scaled the tops of the highest mountains or descended into the bowels of the earth. He was there also. If he took the wings of the morning and remained in the uttermost parts of the seas. He was there. God was present everywhere. How then did it come to pass that such passages as these harmonised with what had been said that his presence was limited to certain places? The answer was very simple. When God was spoken of present certain places. His manifested presence was meant. The definition of sacred place was, where God manifested Himself the eye of the body or the eye of the mind. The rev. gentleman then went on to speak respecting the consecration of churches. He said, as regarded the consecration of a building, it did not make it, it only recognised it as holy. Just the coronation of king did not make that person king, for he was king soon as the breath had left the body of his predecessor; it only made him responsible for his office. In the same way, when a church was consecrated it could only be used for sacred purposes, and the building was made sacred in the truest and highest sense of the word. The ordinary manifestation of the Divine Being was made in the Church. He would now turn to the extraordinary. He then instanced the appearance of the angel to Joshua, and Jacob’s vision, as extraordinary manifestations. But it was not accordance with our new dispensation that such manifestations should now be carried on; yet God manifested himself in Christ even now to the conscience and heart of the true Christian. This was a much higher manifestation than the preceding one. It was the manifestation of Christ through the agency of the Holy Spirit which impressed the house of prayer with that sanctity which possessed. The rev. gentleman then went to refer to the practice that was required be adopted holy places under the old dispensation, The custom was to take off the shoes, on entering a sacred plane, to show allegiance to God; but the custom in our day was different. Instead of uncovering the feet, we uncover the head. The postures also should be distinctly preserved, standing and kneeling at the proper time. This should be attended by all, except those who are prevented by age or bodily infirmity. All communication with each other while in church should avoided milch possible. But the most important point of outward reverential conduct, was to join in the service in an audible voice. It was not at all proper to lay the burden upon few; but let them all join together seeing that the service of prayer and praise, in which they all had common interest, were properly carried out. Let it not thought that this class of duties were as trifling they might seem first sight. They rested upon the purest and most important principles. Man was bound to yield to God the homage of bis entire nature; and the homage of the body ought to be subservient to that of the spirit. But if they merely bowed the head, and had no corresponding feeing at the heart, It was the worst of mockeries. The rev. gentleman concluded bis sermon, of which this is the merest outline, by some observations respecting the restoration of the church. He said great advantages had been rained the alteration, and this above all others, that several hundred free sittings had been secured for the use of the poor by the substitution of open seats for pews. To see a church choked up with high pews, only occupied the higher classes, could not but be revolting to every right mind. But now the case was different; rich and poor could all worship together without any distinction. All grades ought to be on a level while in church. He was sure it must be highly gratifying to those persons who had subscribed towards the alterations, to think that they had been the means of contributing something towards affording greater accommodation for the population of the parish. But the same time there was a deficit on the restoration fund of about £300, which he hoped they would remove.

At the close of the sermon, a collection was made, and the handsome sum of £174. Is. 6d. obtained. At the afternoon service, the church was again filled with a respectable congregation. Prayers were read the Rev. M. Wingfield, Rev. Robt. Sorsbie, Rev. Timothy and the Rev. J. A very impressive sermon was preached by the Rev. Canon James, of Theddingworth, who took for his text the 11th chapter of St. Luke, and the 25th vers ” And when he cometh, he findeth it swept and garnished.”  At the close, the sum of £31.7s 1 ½d  was obtained.

Services were to be held yesterday (Thursday), and also next Sunday, but we have not been able to obtain the amount collected.

We might mention that every accommodation was provided for visitors, refreshments being set out the Agricultural Hall, which was thrown open for free inspection during the day.

On Friday night last, the committee, contractors, and workmen to the number of 60, supped together in the Agricultural Hall, Mr. B. Adam, solicitor, Oakham, presiding, supported by Mr. Wellington and Mr. Mortin. The usual loyal toasts were given, and the health of the Bishop and Clergy of the Diocese was very ably responded to by the Rev. W. S. Wood, head master of the Grammar School.

Introduction

In this series of three related posts, I present transcripts of the press reports concerning the re-opening of All Saints church in Oakham in November 1858. This is done primarily to make the source documents for that event available and easily readable, and there is no discussion of their contents. That will come later. The material is all found in the British Newspaper Archive and the archive OCR text forms the basis of the transcripts, although. As with any OCR text, this has needed considerable editing, which, as I am sure the reader will find, has been imperfectly done. The material presented in the three parts is as follows.

• Part 1 contains the notice of the re-opening the from the Leicester Journal of 5^th November 1858 and a report on the event itself from the Stamford Mercury of 12^th November 1858. The latter contains the text of the report by Gilbert Scott that describes the state of the church before the restoration and what, in his view, needed to be done.
• Part 2 contains a report of the opening from the Leicester Journal of 12^th November 1858. This covers some of the same ground as the Stamford Mercury report, and whilst not including Scott’s report, does give details of the opening event, including the sermon that was preached.
• Part 3 (this part) is from the Lincolnshire Chronicle of August 24^th 1860, and gives the text of a lecture that was given at Oakham Castle entitled “Gothic Architecture” by the Rev Canon James, one of the principal proponents of the Gothic in the region, where the changes that were made to the church are explained and justified.

Leicester Journal 5th November 1858

ALL SAINTS’ CHURCH, OAKHAM.

THE RESTORATION of this Church, in which great and general interest has been shown, is now so near completion that the of November may fixed for the RE-OPENING. It is purposed, therefore (D.V.), to have Divine Service, on WEDNESDAY, November 10th, Eleven o’clock am., Morning Prayer, with Sermon by

THE REV. E. MEYRICK GOULBURN, D.C.L,
Chaplain in ordinary to Her Majesty, and Minister Quebec Chapel, London;

Three o’clock, p.m., Evening Prayer, with Sermon by

 THE REY. CANON JAMES, M.A.
Rural Dean, Vicar of Theddingworth and Sibbertoft.

On THURSDAY, November 11th, Seven o’clock p.m., Evening Prayer, with a Sermon by

THE BEV. J. R. WOODFORD, M.A.
Vicar of Kempsford, Gloucestershire.

On SUNDAY, November 14th, Eleven o’clock, in, Morning Prayer and Holy Communion, with a Sermon by

THE HON. and REV. CANON STUART, M.A.
Rector of Cottesmore.

 6.30. p.m., Evening Prayer, with Sermon by

THE REV. THOMAS YARD, M.A.
Rural Dean and Rector of Ashwell.

A Collection will be made each service in aid the Restoration Fund. A deficit of about £300. remains this; to meet which the sum raised these Collections the only resource available.
The presence and aid of all who take interest this important work is respectfully invited.
In order to secure accommodation for those who reside out of the town, admission until 10.50 a.m. on Wednesday morning will be by cards only; at 10,50 the doors will be thrown open.
Those who propose to attend, are requested to apply for as many Cards as they desire, to one of the Churchwardens ; or to any resident member of the Restoration Committee; or to the Secretary, the Rev. C. A Stevens.

Heneage Finch, Vicar
Rich. Davies, Churchwardens. William Ratcllff, Churchwardens

The Agricultural Hall will, by the kind permission of its managers, be thrown open to Visitors during Wednesday, the 10th November. Arrangements have been made for the supply of Refreshments there on the arrival of the Morning trains, and during the day.

Stamford Mercury 12th November 1858

For a considerable period the very filthy and dilapidated condition of the magnificent church of All Saints, at Oakham, was a subject for regret, not only to those who worshipped within its damp and dingy-looking walls, but to all admirers of Christian architecture. At length the noble sum of £800. was given through the Architectural Society of the Archdeaconry, by unknown donors, which originated the fund that has procured the restoration of the edifice, and which was re-opened for divine worship on Wednesday last. When there seemed to be no longer doubt respecting the raising sufficient amount for beautifying the church the services of Mr. G. G. Scott, the eminent architect, were sought, and after inspecting the fabric returned to London and drew up the following report, which he forwarded to the Rev. Heneage Finch, the Vicar.

 I have made a careful survey of your parish church, with a view to forming an opinion as to the extent of the reparations and restorations which are requisite to putting it into a satisfactory condition, and as to the probable cost of the work. The church is, as you are aware a remarkably fine one. It is the work of several different periods, extending from the end of  the 12th to the commencement of the 16^th century. I have not been able to trace out the course of alteration and addition which has brought to its present form but may mention that its earliest feature is the inner doorway of the porch which is of the end of the 12th century. The next date are the interior of the porch itself and the lower parts of the south wall, with blank recess or window in the east side of the south transept, which are of the first half of the 13th century. Then come the corresponding parts on the north side, with the single pillars in both transepts. The chancel arch, and some minor portions, which are the beginning of the 14th: and the tower, with perhaps the pillars and arches, of the same, and some other portions, which are of the latter part of the same century; while the chancel and the clerestory, and probably the north chancel aisle, are of the 15th, and the south chancel aisle of the 16th centuries. Various, however, as are the dates of these different portions the church, they unite to forming a symmetrical and harmonious whole, having generally the aspect of a church of the 15th century.
In describing the present condition of the church, I will commence with the roofs. The roof of the nave (which pretty good roof in design, though constructed as to press somewhat severely upon the clerestory walls) is a very sad state of decay : one half of it was repaired some years ago, and means were taken to reduce the pressure upon the walls, It will be necessary to do the same throughout; but at the same time the roof will require thorough reparation. I fear that it will be found that a very large proportion of the timbers are decayed. These must be replaced with new oak, the boarding and lead renewed, and the whole restored to a perfect condition. The roofs of the nave aisles are ancient, and better condition than that of the nave itself, but require considerable repairs, and the lead and boarding must be re-laid. The roofs of the transepts have been repaired some thirty years since, and much of the timbers concealed by plastering. I would recommend the substitution of oak panelling for this, and such general repairs as may be found necessary. The chancel has a roof of modern date concealed by a flat plaster ceiling which cuts across the chancel arch. The same roof extends over the north chancel aisle, thus deforming the east end, by placing two divisions under one gable. The north aisle has most beautiful oak panelled ceiling, which happily conceals its roof from within. The south aisle of the chancel has modern roof, of the very meanest description, so that in the interior of the chancel and its aisles we have first a plain flat plaster ceiling to the chancel itself; then to the north aisle a beautiful oak ceiling, showing the manner in which the ancient builders treated their work; and on the south aisle the roof of modern hedge-carpenter, such as would disgrace a cart-shed.
The mode of treatment I would recommend would as follows. First, as the chancel roof has been originally of high pitch, would renew it in that form, and in a manner suited to the beauty of the church. Secondly, I would thoroughly restore the ceiling the north aisle, bringing the external roof to its original level Thirdly, I would put over the south aisle a ceiling corresponding in some degree with that on the north aisle. The roof of the porch and vestry would also require reparation. The walls of the church seem generally pretty substantial, but have suffered much from mutilation, and require careful reparation throughout. The cusps of the windows have nearly everywhere been cut out. The east window has been renewed on a most extraordinary design. Many of the mullions are shattered, and must be renewed, Generally, all mutilated and decayed parts must be renewed, the internal stonework cleaned, the plastering of the walls repaired or renewed as the case may be, the clerestory walls, which have been thrust out must be strengthened, the parapets reset where necessary, the pinnacles restored, and the whole rendered  perfect and substantial The tower has either through settlement, or through the effects of lightening been somewhat split  down its south-eastern angle, and has some few other defects. – These must be substantially repaired, and I would recommend the insertion of a tier of strong iron ties to prevent their re-appearance. The floor of the tower immediately over the church must be renewed, and the other floor and the bell timbers substantially repaired. Of the internal fittings I have but little to say.  They exceed in meanness even what is usual in country churches.  And there must be but one opinion about them – they must entirely cleared away, and the whole refitted in proper manner with good oak seats. There are numerous remnants of old screen work of very character, and some remains ancient seats. These will be useful guides in designing the new fittings The floors must almost entirely new. The doors must be new, excepting that to the south porch, which is ancient and ornamental, but requires restoration. The glazing should be renewed throughout, and stained glass introduced from time-to-time opportunity may offer. While these reparations are in hand, it would be very desirable that the church should be efficiently warmed.
I estimate the probable cost of the works as follows. Those connected with the church and tower with £2300; those to the chancel fabric £575 and fittings £225, (£800); those to the south aisle of the chancel, fittings £320, fittings £80 (£400); those to the north aisle of the chancel fabric £275, fittings £7L (£350): making in all about £3850. The above calculation is made on the supposition of everything being done the best manner, the roofs and the whole executed in a manner worthy of so fine a church,  and need I hardly say that the church so restored would be a most noble and beautiful structure.

The above report was dated April 21,1857, and on the 30^th of the same month the Vicar convened a meeting of the inhabitants and others interested the restoration and re-seating the church. Geo. Finch Esq. presided. Mr. Scott’s report having been read, the following resolution was passed “That this meeting having heard the report of Mr. Scott on the state of the parish church, and acknowledging  the liberal offer of donations to the amount of 800L towards carrying it into effect, is of the opinion that thus opportunity should be taken advantage of and make an immediate and strenuous effort to restore the church to condition befitting its high purposes. A committee wan immediately formed. Mr. Scott was employed as architect and subscriptions to the restoration fund solicited., the Rev. C. A. Stevens accepting the arduous office of honorary secretary.

The call has been liberally responded to as the following subscriptions will show.

Geo. Finch Esq. £1000 
Anonymous, £400
The Dean and Chapter of Westminster, £300
The Rev. Heneage Finch, the Vicar, £200
The late Wm Ades , Esq., £150
The Church Building Society, £150
The Marquis of Exeter, Lord Aveland, the honourable Colonel Lowther, Miss Jones, Miss B. Jones Mrs. Doria, Mrs. Bicknell, the Rev. Brown (Lyndon), the Church Building Society of the Archdeaconry of Northampton, and the Governors of Oakham Grammar-school and Hospital, £100 each
The Hon. G. H. Heathcote, the Rev. J. Jones (Burley), the Hon G. J.NoeL S. Parke, Esq. (Spalding), the Hon. and Rev. A. G. Stewart (Cottesmore), the Rev Thos. Yard (Ashwell), Mr. Adam, and Mrs. Hicks (Jermyn-terrace), £50 each
Messrs. Crowson and Sons, £40
Mrs-Fydell Morcott, £35L
Messrs. Eaton, Cayley, and Co., (Stamford) £30Major-General FludyeZr (Ayston), Col. Freer (Leamington), Miss Thompson (Ketton), Colonel and Mrs. Talbot Clifton, Mr. Hough, Mr. F. King, Mr. Mackinder, Mr. Clarke Morris, Messrs. Morris and Co., Mr. Samson, and the Rev. W. S. Wood, £25 each
The Rev. c. S. Elbcott (Whitwll), Chiselden Henson, Esq. (Cheltenham), Wm. Hopkinson, Esq. (Stamford), Mr. and Miss Hunt and  friends (Clapton), F.J.Mould, Esq. (Brompton) the Hon. and Rev. Noel (Exton), the Misses Wingfield (South Luffenham), Mr. Dain, Mr. Churchwarden Davies, Mr. Hawley, Miss Mason, and Mr. Wellington, £20 each
H. W. Baker, Esq. (Cottesmore), and Ayscough Smith, Esq. (Leesthorpe Hall), £10 10s each
Miss Belgrave (Preston), the Rev. F. G. Burnabv (Barkestone), General Johnson (Wytham on the Hill), John Keal, Esq. (London), Thos. Lawrence, Esq. (Preston), the Rev D. Royce (Netherswell), Colonel and Mrs. R. W. Wood, Mr. Brown (Melton-road), the Rev. T. Byers, Miss Jane Layng, Mr. Morton (Egleton), Miss Mould, Mrs Rawlings, Mr. R. Simpson, the Rev. C. A. Stevens, Mr. Tirrell (Egleton), and Mr. S. C. Turner, £10 each
The Rev. Thos. Field (Cambridge), the Rev. G. H. Parker (London), Mr. Brown (Ashwell-road), Mr. Burn, Mr. Churchwarden Ratcliff and Mr. Thos. Shuttlewood, £5 5s each
The Rev. H. Applebee (Whissendine), the Rev. Canon Argles (Barnack), the Rev. C. Atlay (Barrowden), the Rev. Jas. Atlay (Cambridge). the Rev. the Master Catherine Hall, Edw. Conder Esq (London), the Hon. and Rev. K Cust (Belton), the Yen. Archdeacon Davys (Peterborough), Mrs. Decker (Lyndon), the Rev T. Dove Dove (Frome Solwood), the Rev. C. J. Ellicott (Cambridge), Mrs. Hayton (Kimbolton), the Rev. Canon James (Peterborough), the Rev. H. Jones (Greetham), the Rev. J. Pullein (Kirkthorpe), Wm. Sheild, Esq. (Uppingham), Mr. E. Wright (Melton), N. W. Wyer, Esq. (Bedford), anonymous, Mr. W. Burnett, Mr. Bell, .Mr. Bruce, Miss Butt Mr. D. Cooke, Mr. E. Cunnington (Barleythorpe), Mr. Furley, Mr. W. KeaL jun., Miss Emma Keal, Mr. S. and Mr. J. Tirrell (Egleton), and Mrs. Whyers, £5 each.
Of the £800 which formed the ground-work of the undertaking, £440  now appears in the subscription list as an anonymous donation, and £100 to each the names of the four daughters of the late J. E. Jones, Esq., of Oakham. The Earl of Gainsborough gave £125 to the fund: the north chantry belongs to his Lordship, and in consideration of the above donation the expense of its adornment will be paid out of the general fund.

For the execution the works several firms were solicited send in tenders, and that of Messrs. Ruddle and Thompson, of Peterborough was accepted, the amount of contract being £4400. In a few days afterwords the unsightly furniture was removed from the church, and the restoration proceeded with. In carrying out the undertaking Mr. Scott has strictly preserved every mediaeval detail; even the triangular lines over the tower arch which show gable form of the roof of the earlier church have not been allowed to be erased. He considers that such details show to some extent the history of the church. A portion of the capital the north pillar of the chancel arch was cut away to admit of the erection of the roodscreen, perhaps in the 15th century: the capital illustrated a subject from scripture, but there is not sufficient of the sculpture left enable Mr. Scott effect a faithful restoration he has left the capital in its mutilated form, believing that course be preferable to inserting that which would not be a simile of that chiselled the 14th century. Amongst the improvements effected are— the chancel is floored with Mutton’s encaustic tiles of a rich design, given by the Rev. Lord A. Compton; the aisles are paved with red and black tiles, in pattern ; the interesting Norman font has been removed and re-fixed; the parapet of the nave clerestory has been taken down and re-fixed; the chancel gable and that of the north aisle the chancel have been taken down and re-built; the debased east window has been replaced by a new one of five lights, having deeply sunk and moulded tracery and arches, with columns of polished Derbyshire marble and moulded caps and bases; the pillars, bases, caps, arches, and seats the south porch arcade have been restored; all the windows, cuspings, defective mullions, tracery, jambs, arches, etc. have been carefully restored; the windows have been reglazed with diamond quarries of cathedral glass; all the carvings have been scraped; the whole of the internal stone-dressings of the doorways and windows, pillars, and arches, including tower arches, corbels, stringcourses, quoins, and other dressings have had all the mortar, whitewash etc. taken off; the two galleries over the tower arch have been taken away, and the arch re-opened; and all the piscinas, lockers, tabernacles, etc. restored. The new seats are plain, low, and open: they are three feet high, the poppy-heads being richly carved, the design being similar to several seat ends found in the church before the restoration, and probably the first introduced here after the Reformation. On the seat ends are carvings from natural foliage, including the vine, oak, holly, ivy, maple, hop, thorn, convolvulus, filbert, fig, etc. The fronts of the seats are filled with tracery, having carved spandrils, Ac. The stalls in the chancel have moulded standards, with richly carved finials and arm rests of varied design, and moulded fronts and book rests. The octagonal pulpit is made of the finest wainscot, having traceried panels, the design being in perfect unison with the fittings. The screen (height 3 feet 4 inches) dividing the nave and chancel is formed of a series of trefoiled headed arches deeply moulded and sunk, the cornice being moulded and tilled with bosses. The two screens at the easternmost end, under archways dividing aisles from chancel, have rich tracery heads, supported by circular shafts and moulded caps and bases. The cornice is moulded and embattled, and enriched with carved bosses, the lower part being solid moulded framing. The altar rail and table are of wainscot, and in keeping with the other fittings. The roofs have been thoroughly restored in English oak. The chancel roof is entirely new, the ceiling of which is panelled, and takes the form of the pointed arch, having moulded ribs and carved bosses at the intersections, the part of the roof over the altar being filled with extremely rich wrought tracery. The whole of the roofs are oak boarded and leaded. The gas fittings have been supplied by Mr. Skidmore, of Coventry: the standards are of blue and gold, four of them being erected in the chancel. The warming apparatus has been erected by firm at Birmingham.

Mr. Dent. of the Strand, the maker of the great Parliamentary and other clocks, has been employed to make a clock for the tower of this church, the cost of which, with its erection, will be about £190. It will chime three of the quarters, but not the hour. The time will be ascertained from dials erected under the belfry windows, on the west and south sides of the tower. The design of the- hon dials is quite new: they are perforated throughout and might, with a little extra outlay, be adapted for illumination. The belfry contains six bells: two them have been recast by Mr. Mears of London. About the middle the 17th century peals of were re-introduced into churches to a very great extent. The most celebrated founder this part of the kingdom was Tobie Norris, of Stamford, and plate of bell metal in St George’s church, in that town, thus records the interment of his remains there “Here lieth the body of Tobie Norris, bell-founder.” On one of the bells in the tower of Oakham church is this inscription “Tobie Norris cast me, 1677. God Save the King, T. Meekings.” And on a larger bell, “Tobie Norris, 1677. G. Burton, A. Burton.” Another bell has this inscription ” Henry Perm made me, 1723. Francis Cleeve, W. M. Maidwell, churchwardens.” Many towers this district contain bells cast by Tobie and Thomas Norns, at Stamford, but the site of their foundry is not now known.

The subscribers to the restoration fund have the satisfaction of knowing that the committee secured the services of gentlemen eminent their calling to carry out the important work now on the eve of being completed. Mr. G. G. Scott, the architect, is one of the leading men the profession, his services being sought in most parts of the kingdom on the most important and extensive ecclesiastical edifices. The contractors, Messrs. Ruddle and Thompson, of Peterborough’, have carried out with satisfaction great undertakings at various cathedral and parish churches: they are now executing the extensive restoration at Higham Ferrers church, and only few days ago the contract entered into by them for the roofing and internal fittings at St. George’s church, Doncaster, for the sum of £10,259*., was completed. Messrs. Minton and Co., who supplied the flooring tiles, Mr. Mears, bell founder, who re cast two of the bells, Mr. Skidmore, of Coventry, who supplied the gas standards, and Mr. Dent, the manufacturer of the new clock, are firms known throughout the kingdom.

Wednesday last will be a “red letter day” in the history of the county town of Rutland. As early as six o clock the church bells reminded the inhabitants of Oakham that the anxiously looked for day had arrived when they were again to possess the privilege of worshipping their Maker in their own parish church. The Agricultural Hall was thrown open for the reception of distant visitors on their arrival, where a supply refreshments and good fires had been provided by direction of the committee. By 10 o’clock the workmen had ceased their labours; the committee of management were seen to be busily engaged; and the police were attendance to prevent the pressure of the crowd at the entrances. At half past ten the visitors began to assemble and were conducted to the seats by the committee. The clergy, in their gowns entered in procession. At ten minutes before eleven the doors were thrown open, when those who had not procured tickets were admitted, and the church was quickly filled.

At eleven the service commenced by the Rev. H. Wingfield reading the service for the day: the Psalms having been chanted, the Rev. R. King read the first and the Rev W P Wood the second lesson; the Litany was read the Rev. R. Sorsbia, the communion service by the Rev H Finch the Epistle for the day by the Rev. J.R Woodford, the Gospel by the Rev. C. Stuart, and the Creed by the Rev T Yard The sermon was preached by the Rev. E. M. Goulburn D.C.L., of London. The text was taken from Exodus iii 5. The sermon was eloquent and appropriate; and the choir (from Leicester) efficient and powerful. The church was well warmed and the arrangements excellent. The inconvenience experienced by the strong sun light through the cathedral glass during the morning service will, it is hoped, at no distant day lead to the introduction of stained glass, which is much wanted to subdue the light.

Amongst the congregation were Lord Wensleydale, the Hon. Calthrop, the Hon. Colonel and Miss Lowther, H. Lowther, Esq., MP. Geo. Finch, Esq., Lady Louisa Finch, the Misses Finch, John and Lady Trollope, Colonel R. and Mrs. Wood, the Hon Hy. and Mrs Noel. Miss Noel and friends, J. M. Wingfield Esq. the Misses Wingfield, H. Wingfield, Esq., the Hon. Evans Freke, Captain Doria, General Fludyer. Miss Fludyer, Mrs. Jackson, W. A. Pochin Esq and friends, Mrs. and Miss Baker, J. F. Mould, Esq. the Misses Arnold (Tinwell), W. Sheild, Esq., E. Cayley, Esq, R. de Capel Brooke Esq., Mr and Mrs. Barnard, Mr. and Mrs. Latham, Mrs. Whitchurch and friends, Mr. and Mrs. Harrison; the Rev. Hon. Leland Noel and family, Hon. A. Stewart and family, H. Fludyer, F. E. Gretton, W .J. Williams, C. Nevinson, Lovick Cooper, N. Twopeny, E. Cayley, H. Jones, S. Rolleston, W. Belgrave, H. Yard, C E. Prichard S. Walters P.J. E. Miles, T. Hoskins, M. Garrett, W. Metcalfe, J Noyes, W Ostler, F P Johnson, E. Brown, T. James J. R Woodford, W. S. Wood, T. Byers, R. King, R. Sorsbie J. W. Sherrington, G. E Gillett, G. A. Poole, W. Jay, H. J. Bigg c. A. Stevens, Prescott, T. Peake, T. Cooke, J. Beresford.

ln the afternoon the sermon was preached by the Rev. Canon James, Vicar of Theddingworth and Sibbertoft, from 11th chapter of Luke and 25th verse. The collections in the morning amounted to £174i 0s 6d and in the afternoon to to £31 7s. 1½d, total £205 7s 7½d.

The early hour at which the first train leaves Peterborough’ in the morning prevented many from attending the re-opening of the above church.

Introduction and sources

One of the most interesting features of the parish church of All Saints in Oakham is the set of elaborately decorated capitals at the top of the pillars supporting the arches in the nave. The subject matter includes biblical stories, images of grotesque beasts, angels, devils and a green man. This blog posts will consider these capitals in some detail, trying to understand what is represented on each one, and speculating as to whether or not there are relationships between some or all of the individual designs.

There have been a number of descriptions of the capitals in the past – the Victoria County History for Rutland (1), Pevsner’s Buildings of England (2) and Aston’s Guide and history of the Church (3). These will be referred to as VCH, Pevsner and Guide in what follows. In addition, Lionel Wall has a web page on his “Great English Churches website (4), with many photographs of the capitals. These are significantly better than the photographs I have managed to take, and he has kindly given me permission to use them in this post. Thus nearly all the photographs in what follows are from this source, although they have all been rendered in greyscale for comparative purposes.  However, I will use a few of my own photographs, which will be clearly distinguished in what follows, even if only by their poor  quality.

I have adopted an identification system for the Capital carvings, and this is shown in figure 1 below, the underlying plan being taken from (1).  T indicates the carvings on the Tower capitals, C those on the chancel, CA those on the chancel arch and P1, P2 and P3 those on the pillars. N indicates those on the north side of the church, and S those on the south side.

Figure 1. Key to the Capitals – plan taken from (1)

On P1N, P2N, P1S, P2S and P3S the carvings encircle the capitals, whilst on P3N the carving is only on the Nave side. TN, TS, CN, CS, CAN and CAS are, due to the local geometry, carved on one side only. CAN and CAS have been partially damaged by the installation, and possibly the later removal, of the Victorian rood screen.

I will begin by looking at the Capitals in turn, and then move on to speculating as to the nature of a possible overall arrangement with links between the individual designs.

Descriptions of the Capitals

Tower North (TN)           

VCH – expulsion from Eden; Pevsner – expulsion from Eden; Guide – the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden

Figure 2. The Tower North Capital

The three earlier descriptions are clearly correct, but more can be said. The carving on the left of figure 2 shows Adam and Eve either side of either the Tree of Life or the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil – there is debate amongst scholars as to whether or not these names refer to the same tree. The serpent can be seen between them (Genesis 3.1-6). Eve’s arm is extended to Adam, perhaps offering him the apple from the tree. The figure on the right shows the pair being expelled from the garden, with the angel with flaming sword depicted blocking the way back (Genesis 3.23-24).

Pillar 1 North (P1N)       

VCH – grotesque heads and hands; Pevsner – grotesque figures; Guide – grotesque heads and legs

Figure 3 Pillar 1 North Capital (photographs by author)

The four figures are indeed grotesque, with faces showing a range of expressions from aggression to horror. If they represent anything at all other than the stonemason’s fancy, they could represent the state of fallen humanity, or be representations of demons. This capital was very difficult to photograph because of the lighting conditions, and the pictures are not all that I would wish for.

Pillar 2 North (P2N)       

VCH – grotesque heads and limbs with a dragon biting itself; Pevsner – dragon; Guide – grotesque heads and a dragon.

Figure 4. Pillar 2 North Capital

There are more grotesque heads on one side of the capital, a male and a female in my view, with a coiled dragon on the other. The dragon only occurs in scripture at several places in the book of Revelation, where it is unambiguously a representation of Satan. So perhaps we have here a picture of the oppression of humanity by the devil. The two faces have animal like bodies however, so perhaps these too are meant to represent demons or evil spirits.

Pillar 3 North (P3N)       

VCH – foliage; Pevsner – leaves; Guide – the Green Man.

Figure 5. Pillar 3 North Capital

Oddly both VCH and Pevsner miss the main feature of this Capital – a rather fine Green Man with foliage sprouting from its mouth. This design is on one side of the capital only. The notion that the Green Man represents a survival from pagan worship has been thoroughly debunked in recent years (5), and historians have demonstrated an origin in India that came, via the Arab world to be used with a decorative function in European churches. In terms of Christian iconography, some think that Green Men with foliage springing from their mouths, such as the one here, reflected the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine, from the 13^th century, which describes how Seth, the third son of Adam, planted seeds from the Tree of Life in his dead father’s mouth as he lies in his grave. The tree that grew from them became the tree of the true cross of the crucifixion. The figure could thus represent the death mask of Adam, with a foreshadowing of the cross and resurrection.

Chancel North (CN)        

VCH – a beast-like figure playing upon a musical instrument, the figure ending in foliage; Pevsner – not described; Guide – a beast with a human head plays an instrument.

Figure 6. The Chancel North Capital

The decoration on the pillar next to the chancel show a winged beast with a human head playing an instrument that looks like a lyre, using a bow. The only meaning I can give to this is that it is a Siren of the legends of antiquity, that lured sailors to their death by the beauty of their song – the medieval period was much influenced by such classical legends. As such it may represent the alluring temptations of sin.

Chancel arch north (CAN)

VCH – not described; Pevsner – not described; Guide – not described.

Figure 7. The Chancel Arch North Capital (right hand photograph by author)

This carving was damaged by the installation of the Victorian rood screen, long since removed. Thank you, Gilbert Scott. The front figure shows two figures making faces, and there was presumably a third to the right. Around the back however, on the other side of the rood screen damage, there is a much more serious, although rather worn, person in prayer. What this all represents is beyond me – I am inclined to think it is simply the sense of humour of the mason.

Tower South (TS)            

VCH – rich foliage and a pelican in piety; Pevsner – birds; Guide – the pelican in her piety – symbol of the sacrament.

Figure 8. The Tower South Capital

The identification of the Pelican with Holy Communion is well set out in the following quote from the Catholic Education Resource Centre (6).

The symbolism of the mother pelican feeding her little baby pelicans is rooted in an ancient legend which preceded Christianity. The legend was that in time of famine, the mother pelican wounded herself, striking her breast with the beak to feed her young with her blood to prevent starvation. Another version of the legend was that the mother fed her dying young with her blood to revive them from death, but in turn lost her own life. Given this tradition, one can easily see why the early Christians adapted it to symbolize our Lord, Jesus Christ. The pelican symbolizes Jesus our Redeemer who gave His life for our redemption and the atonement He made through His passion and death. We were dead to sin and have found new life through the Blood of Christ. Moreover, Jesus continues to feed us with His body and blood in the holy Eucharist.

On the Capital we have the pelican and her chicks on a nest in a tree – perhaps again representing the Tree of Life.

Pillar 1 South (P1S)        

VCH – fox stealing goose followed by goslings and man with a besom, and on the other side an ape with his clog; Pevsner – a fox, an ape with a chain ending in a clog; Guide – the legend of Reynard the Fox.

Figure 9. Pillar 1 South Capital

This is perhaps the most complex of the carvings and certainly the most difficult to interpret. VCH and Pevsner’s descriptions are brief and partial, whilst that of the Guide makes quite a firm statement as to its content. The Guide goes on to give the following further explanation.

The carving of Reynard the Fox is similar to that at Tilton on the Hill, 8 miles west in Leicestershire. At Oakham Reynard is seen on the north side of the capital, with a goose in his jaws, followed by goslings. A man points his distaff at the fox.  A fettered monkey is also depicted, and two snake-like creatures intertwine, each biting the others tail. The fox may represent the Abbot of Westminster making off with the great tithe, leaving only the small tithe for the local priest (the fettered monkey). Alternatively, it could be and illustration of Chaucer’s Nun’s Priest tale.

I find some of this very debatable indeed. Firstly, my reading of the medieval stories of Reynard the Fox suggests he is primarily a trickster, and I can find no reference to him stealing a goose. The Nuns Priest’s tale is perhaps a better fit. A summary from the Harvard Geoffery Chaucer web site (7) reads as follows.

In a chicken yard owned by a poor widow, the rooster Chaunticleer lives in royal splendor with his seven wives, of whom his favorite is the fair Pertelote. He dreams that he is attacked by a strange beast (a fox, which he does not recognize because he has never seen one). Pertelote advises he forget the dream; dreams, she says, come from indigestion. Chaunticleer insists on the power of dreams to predict the future. But he takes her advice. Later that day a fox appears and by trickery seizes Chaunticleer and carries him off, pursued by all of the old widow’s household. Chaunticleer tells the fox to taunt his pursuers; the fox opens his mouth to do so, and Chaunticleer is free to fly into a tree. Chaunticleer, the fox, and the narrator all draw morals from the adventure.

The specific moral of interest is a warning against vanity – as demonstrated by both Chaunticleer and the fox.

As the fox seems to have dropped the “goose” from his mouth, and he is pursued by seven “goslings”, this would seem to fit with at least part of the Capital depiction, although how well a stonemason might be expected to know what was essentially a courtly tale is debatable.  It could however be based on a folk tale that was used by Chaucer for his composition.

But, there are other characters in the carving that certainly don’t figure in the Nuns Priest’s tale: the recumbent man holding a distaff (but why should be holding a distaff, usually the symbol of a women, is another issue); the creature with the chain around its neck which is almost certainly an ape or a monkey – the “weight” that seems to hang from it is a clog – a wooden block that was used to attach to a chain (although the animal appears unfettered); and the serpentine figure between the fox and the ape.   

I presume the notion that this is representative of the disagreements between the clergy of Westminster Abbey and the local clergy has a source somewhere, but I have never come across it, and why the former should be represented by a fox and the latter by an ape / monkey is a bit of a mystery.

So what are we to make of this? Perhaps the answer lies in Christian symbolism. Foxes are occasionally mentioned in scripture, almost always negatively. Jesus refers to King Herod as “that fox” (Luke 13.32). In the Song of Solomon we read

Catch for us the foxes, the little foxes that ruin the vineyards (Song of Solomon 2.15)

Perhaps we have here the likely meaning – the fox is a symbol of and of the sins of church members that are the ruination of faith – in particular, if the Nuns Priest’s tale is referred to, the sin of vanity. In Christian iconography, monkeys or apes represent base instincts such as lust, greed and malice, particularly when unchained (8). The snakes might also be representations of the devil. So taken together we might have an allegorical representation of the sins that defile individuals and the church. But the level of speculation here is becoming excessive.

Pillar 2 South (P2S)        

VCH – four angels; Pevsner – four angels; Guide – four angels facing the points of the compass.

Figure 10. Pillar 2 South Capital

The four angels are indeed facing in the four cardinal directions. They are all quite similar in form. Symbolically they may simply be an indication of the protection of God’s people, or they might refer more explicitly to the four angels of Revelation 7.1.

After this I saw four angels standing at the four corners of the earth, holding back the four winds of the earth, that no wind might blow on earth or sea or against any tree.

The winds here indicate the coming judgement of God on the world, held back until the right time by the heavenly powers.

Pillar 3 South (P3S)

VCH – symbols of the four Evangelists; Pevsner – signs of the Evangelists; Guide – the four Evangelists

Figure 11. Pillar 3 South Capital (bottom two photographs by the author)

These figures do indeed represent the four gospel writers – Saint Luke (Ox – top left picture), Saint John (Eagle – top right picture) and St Mark (Lion – bottom left picture) and Saint Matthew (Angel – bottom right picture). These in turn reflect the natures of the four living creatures of Ezekiel’s vision from the Old Testament, the seraphim bearing the throne chariot of God each with the same four faces. Ezekiel 1.10 describes them as follows.

Their faces looked like this: Each of the four had the face of a human being, and on the right side each had the face of a lion, and on the left the face of an ox; each also had the face of an eagle.

This chapter, and its associated symbolism, was very influential in early Christian and Jewish apocalyptic literature (9). These symbols then probably represent the Word of God, and the presence of God.

Chancel South (CS)         

VCH – the Expulsion from Eden, the Annunciation, the Coronation of the Virgin; Pevsner – Adam and Eve, the Annunciation and the Coronation of the Virgin; Guide – Coronation of the Virgin – the Annunciation.

Figure 12. Chancel South Capital

This is perhaps the most intricately carved of all the capitals in All Saints. There are three scenes. The first shows a king crowning a queen, taken as being the Crowning of the Virgin Mary in heaven by either God the Father or her son Jesus, also crowned – a thoroughly non-biblical story. The very anthropomorphic nature of the scene suggests to me that this is based on a model of the coronation of a medieval queen. The second scene is a representation of the Annunciation – the appearance of the angel Gabriel to Mary to announce the coming birth of Christ. Between Mary and Gabriel, we can see the Lily – the symbol of Mary. Finally on the right we seem to have another Adam and Eve scene, accompanied by an angel with a scythe – perhaps representing the final harvest of souls, where the first couple are given a vision of the redemption of the world by the son of Mary.

Chancel arch south (CAS)

VCH – not described; Pevsner – not described; Guide – damaged by the Victorian rood screen

Figure 13. Chancel Arch South Capital (photograph by author)

As with the north chancel arch carving, this was damaged to install the Victorian rood screen. Its contents are not clear, but seem to be largely foliage. However it is perhaps possible that some of the foliage is actually small heads, and digits, but there is too much damage to be certain. Again, hearty thanks are due to Mr Scott for his contribution.

A bigger picture

So, having discussed all the Capital designs individually, is it possible that they fit into an overall scheme in some way? In what follows I will try to make the case that there is an overarching theme that connects all the designs, although in doing so, I am conscious I might simply be reading too much into the available evidence – and that the collection simply represents the imagination and arbitrary decisions of the masons.

Figure 14 below is an annotated version of Figure 1 that will help to understand the musings that follow with relationships between the different capitals indicated by arrows. Firstly, there are clear similarities of them between TN and CS – the story of Adam and Eve, both at the creation and at the end of time. These are on a diagonal across the church. Moving clockwise PIN and P3S are clearly similar although opposites of each other.  – grotesque animals and faces in the former, with a devilish aspect, with similar, but sanctified beasts in the latter representing the evangelists. P2N and P2S are also opposites – the devil in the former and the angels in the latter. Carrying on clockwise, we come to P3N (the Green Man) and P1S (the fox and his entourage). It is hard to see much in common or in opposition here, other than their ambiguity of meaning. Perhaps in the former we see good coming from evil, whilst the latter shows that evil is always aiming for a comeback. Then we come to CN and TS – both featuring birds or winged beast – the first luring humanity to sin, and the second showing the cure for sin – the eucharist. That leaves us with the chancel arch decorations – I can see no linkage here, and, if there is an overall plan to the other carvings, I do not think these are part of it.

Figure 14. Relationships between Capitals

Overall then, these carvings seem to show a set of images in opposition to each other across the nave of the church – symbols of evil and darkness on the north and symbols of redemption and light on the south – which is quite consistent with many aspects of church and churchyard architecture.

One final puzzle however – nowhere I the carvings is there an unambiguous representation of Christ, unless that be in the scene of the Coronation of the Virgin. This seems to me odd, but perhaps the reader better versed in medieval symbolism might be able to enlighten me. 

References

1. A History of the County of Rutland: Volume 2. Originally published by Victoria County History, London, 1935. British History Online https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/rutland/vol2/pp5-27  Accessed February 2024
2. Pevsner N (1960) “The buildings of England. Leicestershire and Rutland”, Penguin Books
3. Aston N (2003) “All Saints, Oakham, Rutland. A guide and history” Friends of All Saints. Multum in Parvo Press, Oakham
4. Great English Churches, the website of Lionel Wall.  Oakham. Accessed February 2024
5. Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Man Accessed February 2024
6. Catholic Education Resource Centre. https://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/catholic-contributions/the-symbolism-of-the-pelican.html  Accessed February 2024
7. Harvard Geoffery Chaucer web site. https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/pages/nuns-priests-tale  Accessed February 2024.
8. Daniel Esparza (2019) The curious place of apes in Christian art https://aleteia.org/2019/10/15/the-curious-place-of-apes-in-christian-art/ Accessed February 2024
9. Rowland C (2002) “The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity” Wipf and Stock